Dawn Lowery 
Positive Reinforcement Techniques Every Puppy Loves
Positive Reinforcement Techniques Every Puppy Loves
Building Trust and Obedience Through Positive Methods
Positive reinforcement training is a scientifically-proven method that builds strong bonds between puppies and their owners while teaching good behavior. This approach focuses on rewarding desired behaviors rather than punishing unwanted ones, creating a positive learning environment that puppies love and respond to eagerly.
Unlike traditional training methods that rely on dominance and correction, positive reinforcement works with your puppy's natural instincts and motivations. When implemented correctly, this approach not only teaches obedience but also builds confidence, trust, and enthusiasm for learning that lasts a lifetime.
In this comprehensive guide, we'll explore the most effective positive reinforcement techniques that puppies naturally respond to, how to implement them successfully, and common mistakes to avoid. Whether you're bringing home a new puppy or looking to improve your training methods, these techniques will help you create a happy, well-behaved canine companion.
What Is Positive Reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement is a training method based on the principle that behaviors followed by rewarding consequences are more likely to be repeated. In dog training, this means immediately rewarding your puppy with something they value when they perform a desired behavior.
The Science Behind Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is grounded in behavioral psychology, particularly B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning theory. When a puppy performs a behavior that results in a reward, their brain releases dopamine, creating a positive association with that behavior. This process strengthens neural pathways, making the behavior more likely to occur again. The effectiveness of positive reinforcement is supported by extensive research showing it's not only more humane but also more effective than punishment-based methods for long-term behavior change.
Core Principles
- Reward desired behaviors immediately to create clear associations
- Use rewards your puppy values - treats, play, praise, or affection
- Be consistent with your cues and rewards
- Set your puppy up for success by breaking behaviors into small steps
- Focus on what you want rather than punishing what you don't want
Why Positive Reinforcement Works
Positive reinforcement is effective because it aligns with how puppies naturally learn and builds a strong foundation for lifelong training success.
Natural Learning Process
Puppies, like all animals, naturally repeat behaviors that result in positive outcomes. Positive reinforcement taps into this innate learning mechanism, making training feel natural and intuitive for your puppy.
Builds Positive Associations
When training is associated with rewards and fun, puppies develop positive feelings toward learning and their trainer. This creates enthusiasm for training sessions rather than fear or avoidance.
Reduces Stress and Fear
Unlike punishment-based methods that can create anxiety, positive reinforcement creates a low-stress learning environment. Studies show dogs trained with positive methods have lower cortisol levels.
Encourages Problem-Solving
Positive reinforcement encourages puppies to think and try new behaviors. This develops their cognitive abilities and creates a more adaptable, intelligent dog.
Evidence-Based Effectiveness
Multiple scientific studies have demonstrated the superiority of positive reinforcement over aversive methods. Research published in journals such as Applied Animal Behaviour Science has shown that dogs trained with positive methods exhibit fewer behavior problems, learn commands more quickly, and show stronger bonds with their owners. Additionally, these dogs demonstrate better overall welfare indicators and are less likely to develop fear-based aggression or anxiety disorders.
Key Benefits for Puppies
Positive reinforcement training offers numerous advantages that extend far beyond basic obedience, shaping your puppy's overall development and your relationship.
Training Benefits
- Faster Learning: Puppies learn more quickly when motivated by rewards
- Better Retention: Behaviors learned through positive reinforcement are retained longer
- Generalization: Puppies more easily apply learned behaviors to new situations
- Reliability: Behaviors become more reliable over time with consistent reinforcement
Behavioral and Emotional Benefits
- Increased Confidence: Success and rewards build self-assurance
- Reduced Anxiety: Positive experiences decrease fear and stress
- Better Impulse Control: Learning to wait for rewards develops self-control
- Improved Social Skills: Positive interactions with people and other dogs
Relationship Benefits
- Stronger Bond: Your puppy learns to trust and enjoy working with you
- Clear Communication: Both you and your puppy understand each other better
- Mutual Respect: Training becomes a partnership rather than a power struggle
- Lifelong Learning: Creates a foundation for continued training throughout your dog's life
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Even with good intentions, many puppy owners make these common mistakes that can undermine positive reinforcement training.
Inconsistent Rewarding
Common Mistake
Rewarding sometimes but not others for the same behavior, especially when first teaching a new skill.
Confuses puppies and slows learning.
Consistent Reinforcement
What to Do Instead
Reward every correct response when first teaching a behavior, then gradually transition to intermittent rewards.
Builds strong foundation before varying rewards.
Poor Timing
Common Mistake
Rewarding too late, after the puppy has already moved on to another behavior.
Puppy associates reward with wrong behavior.
Immediate Rewards
What to Do Instead
Deliver rewards within 1-2 seconds of the desired behavior. Use a marker signal for precision.
Clear communication = faster learning.
Asking Too Much Too Soon
Common Mistake
Expecting perfect behavior in distracting environments before it's reliable in quiet ones.
Sets puppy up for failure.
Progressive Challenges
What to Do Instead
Use the three D's: increase Distance, Duration, and Distractions gradually as your puppy succeeds.
Build success in small steps.
Additional Mistakes to Avoid
Using low-value rewards for difficult tasks: Save high-value treats for challenging situations or learning new behaviors. Training when frustrated: Your puppy senses your emotions; only train when you're patient and positive. Neglecting to fade lures: If you use food lures, gradually phase them out once your puppy understands the behavior. Overlooking management: Set up your environment to prevent unwanted behaviors rather than constantly correcting them. Inconsistency among family members: Ensure everyone uses the same cues and reward criteria.
Essential Tools for Reward-Based Training
Having the right tools can make positive reinforcement training more effective and enjoyable for both you and your puppy.
High-Value Treats
Essential
Small, soft, smelly treats that can be consumed quickly. Examples: boiled chicken, cheese, commercial training treats, hot dogs.
Use for difficult tasks or distractions.
Clicker or Marker Word
Training Tool
A clicker or specific word ("yes!") to mark the exact moment your puppy performs the desired behavior.
Creates clear communication.
Training Pouch
Optional but Helpful
A treat pouch that clips to your waist, keeping treats accessible while keeping your hands free.
Makes training sessions smoother.
Additional Helpful Tools
- Target stick: For teaching targeting behaviors
- Training mat: Designates a specific area for settling
- Interactive toys: Puzzle feeders for mental stimulation
- Long line: For practicing recalls in open spaces
- Various toys: Different types for different reward preferences
Creating a Reward Hierarchy
Not all rewards are equal in your puppy's eyes. Create a hierarchy from low-value (kibble, mild praise) to high-value (special treats, exciting games). Use low-value rewards for easy behaviors in familiar environments and reserve high-value rewards for learning new skills or working in distracting situations. This strategy maximizes your puppy's motivation and makes training more effective. Remember that what constitutes a high-value reward can vary from puppy to puppy, so pay attention to what your individual puppy works hardest to earn.
Step-by-Step Positive Training Techniques
These proven techniques form the foundation of effective positive reinforcement training for puppies.
Luring
Using a treat to guide your puppy into the desired position or movement.
- Hold a treat to your puppy's nose
- Slowly move the treat to guide your puppy into position
- As soon as they're in position, mark with "yes!" or a click
- Immediately give the treat
- Gradually reduce the lure until your puppy responds to just your hand signal or verbal cue
Best for: Teaching sits, downs, spins, and other position changes
Capturing
Rewarding your puppy when they spontaneously offer a desired behavior.
- Keep treats handy throughout the day
- When your puppy naturally does something you like, immediately mark it
- Reward with a treat
- After several repetitions, add a verbal cue just as your puppy begins the behavior
Best for: Teaching calm behavior, settling on a mat, natural behaviors like stretching
Shaping
Rewarding successive approximations toward the final behavior.
- Identify the final behavior you want to teach
- Break it down into small, achievable steps
- Reward your puppy for the first small step toward the behavior
- Once they're consistently offering that step, wait for a slightly closer approximation
- Continue raising criteria until you achieve the final behavior
Best for: Complex behaviors like retrieving, going to a specific location, tricks
Teaching "Sit"
1. Hold treat near puppy's nose. 2. Slowly move treat up and back. 3. As bottom touches floor, say "yes!" and reward. 4. Practice 5-10 times per session.
Teaching "Come"
1. Start in low-distraction area. 2. Say "come" in happy voice while stepping backward. 3. When puppy follows, reward generously. 4. Gradually increase distance.
Teaching "Stay"
1. Ask for sit. 2. Show palm, say "stay." 3. Wait 1 second, then reward. 4. Gradually increase duration before rewarding. 5. Add distance gradually.
Timing and Consistency in Reinforcement
Proper timing and consistency are crucial for effective positive reinforcement training. Puppies make connections between their behavior and consequences within seconds.
The Golden Window
To create a strong association, rewards must be delivered within 1-3 seconds of the desired behavior. This immediate feedback helps your puppy understand exactly what action earned the reward.
- 0-1 seconds: Ideal timing for clear association
- 1-3 seconds: Acceptable timing, but connection may be less clear
- 3+ seconds: Poor timing, puppy may not connect behavior with reward
Consistency Matters
Consistent responses from all family members help your puppy learn faster and prevent confusion.
- Use the same cues: All family members should use identical verbal and visual signals
- Maintain criteria: Don't reward approximations once your puppy has mastered a behavior
- Regular practice: Short, frequent sessions are more effective than long, infrequent ones
- Environmental consistency: Start training in low-distraction environments, gradually adding challenges
Marker Training
Using a marker signal like a clicker or specific word ("yes!") can significantly improve your timing. The marker precisely identifies the moment your puppy performs the correct behavior, bridging the gap between the behavior and the reward. Clicker training is particularly effective because the sound is consistent and unique to training contexts. To introduce a marker: 1) Charge the marker by repeatedly pairing it with a treat (click-treat, click-treat); 2) Once your puppy anticipates a treat after hearing the marker, begin using it to mark desired behaviors; 3) Always follow the marker with a reward. This technique creates clear communication and accelerates learning by providing instant feedback.
Reinforcement Schedules
As your puppy learns, adjust how frequently you reward successful behaviors:
- Continuous Reinforcement: Reward every correct response - use when teaching new behaviors
- Intermittent Reinforcement: Reward some correct responses randomly - use to maintain learned behaviors
- Variable Ratio Schedule: Reward after an unpredictable number of correct responses - creates strong, persistent behaviors
Treats vs Praise: What Works Best?
Understanding when to use food rewards versus verbal praise is key to effective positive reinforcement training.
Food Treats
When to Use
- Teaching new behaviors
- Working in distracting environments
- With puppies who are highly food-motivated
- For behaviors that require significant effort
High-value for most puppies
Verbal Praise
When to Use
- Maintaining already learned behaviors
- In low-distraction environments
- With puppies who are highly social
- Between treat rewards to vary reinforcement
Variable value depending on puppy
Combination Approach
Most Effective
- Pair praise with treats initially
- Gradually reduce treats while maintaining praise
- Use life rewards (play, walks) as alternatives
- Vary rewards to maintain interest
Builds lasting responsiveness
Finding the Right Balance
The most effective trainers use a balanced approach that includes various types of reinforcement:
- Primary Reinforcers: Food, water, play - things puppies naturally value
- Secondary Reinforcers: Praise, petting, clicker - things that become rewarding through association
- Life Rewards: Opportunities to do desired activities (going outside, sniffing, greeting people)
Understanding Your Puppy's Motivation
Every puppy has unique preferences. To discover what motivates your puppy most, offer a variety of potential rewards and see which ones they work hardest to earn. Some puppies are highly food-motivated, while others may value play or social interaction more. You can test reward value by seeing which treats your puppy chooses when given options. The most effective trainers use what psychologists call the "Premack Principle" - using more desirable activities (like chasing a squirrel) as rewards for less desirable ones (like coming when called). By understanding what truly motivates your puppy, you can make training sessions incredibly effective and enjoyable for both of you.
Positive Reinforcement for Common Puppy Behaviors
Apply positive reinforcement techniques to address common puppy behaviors effectively and humanely.
Mouthing and Nipping
Problem: Puppy mouths hands during play or interaction
Positive Solution:
- When puppy mouths, say "ouch!" in a high-pitched voice
- Immediately redirect to an appropriate chew toy
- When puppy chews the toy instead, praise and reward
- Ensure puppy gets adequate sleep - overtired puppies mouth more
Jumping Up
Problem: Puppy jumps on people for attention
Positive Solution:
- Turn away and ignore puppy when they jump
- When all four paws are on the floor, immediately reward
- Ask for an incompatible behavior like "sit" before greeting
- Reward the sit generously with attention and treats
House Training
Problem: Puppy has accidents indoors
Positive Solution:
- Take puppy out frequently (after waking, playing, eating)
- When puppy eliminates outside, immediately praise and reward
- Use a specific word ("potty") as they eliminate
- Supervise closely indoors to prevent accidents
Excessive Barking
Problem: Puppy barks for attention or at stimuli
Positive Solution:
- Teach "quiet" by rewarding moments of silence
- Provide appropriate mental and physical exercise
- Manage the environment to reduce triggers
- Reward calm behavior throughout the day
The Power of Prevention
The most effective positive reinforcement strategy is preventing unwanted behaviors before they start. Use management tools like baby gates, crates, and tethers to limit your puppy's opportunities to practice behaviors you don't want. For example, if your puppy chews furniture, use gates to keep them in puppy-proofed areas with appropriate chew toys. If they have accidents indoors, maintain a strict potty schedule and supervise closely. By setting up your puppy for success, you'll have more opportunities to reward good behavior and fewer behaviors to correct.
Transitioning from Treats to Verbal Rewards
Successfully phasing out food rewards while maintaining your puppy's responsiveness is a key skill in positive reinforcement training.
The Transition Process
- Establish the behavior with continuous reinforcement: Reward every correct response with a treat until the behavior is reliable in low-distraction environments.
- Introduce variable reinforcement: Start rewarding only some correct responses, gradually making the pattern less predictable.
- Pair treats with praise: When you give a treat, also offer enthusiastic praise so your puppy associates praise with good things.
- Begin substituting praise for treats: Occasionally use just praise without a food reward for known behaviors.
- Use life rewards: Incorporate real-life privileges like going outside, getting attention, or playing as rewards.
- Maintain occasional surprise treats: Even for well-established behaviors, occasionally reward with a high-value treat to maintain enthusiasm.
Common Transition Mistakes
- Phasing out treats too quickly: This can cause your puppy to stop responding
- Using low-value praise: Make your praise enthusiastic and meaningful
- Expecting perfection in high-distraction environments: You may need to return to higher rates of reinforcement in challenging situations
- Neglecting to reinforce at all: Even well-trained dogs need occasional reinforcement
When to Use Higher Reinforcement
There are situations where you should temporarily return to higher rates of reinforcement, even for behaviors your puppy knows well: when working in new or highly distracting environments, when your puppy is stressed or fearful, when asking for behaviors that are particularly difficult, and when you need exceptional reliability (like recall near roads). Smart trainers understand that reinforcement is a fluid process that should be adjusted based on the situation and the dog's current state.
Sample Transition Schedule
| Training Stage | Treat Frequency | Praise Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Learning New Behavior | Every time (100%) | Every time (100%) |
| Behavior Established | 8 out of 10 times (80%) | Every time (100%) |
| Behavior Reliable | 5 out of 10 times (50%) | Every time (100%) |
| Behavior Mastered | 2-3 out of 10 times (20-30%) | Every time (100%) |
| Maintenance | Occasional surprise treats | Most times (80%) |
Real-Life Examples and Success Stories
These real-world examples demonstrate how positive reinforcement techniques transform puppy behavior and strengthen the human-canine bond.
Bailey's Recall Transformation
Challenge: Bailey, a 4-month-old Labrador, would ignore his owner's calls when distracted outdoors.
Positive Reinforcement Approach:
- Started recall training indoors with high-value chicken treats
- Used a special recall cue ("Bailey, here!") only for training
- Practiced in the backyard on a long line before trying off-leash
- Made coming when called always rewarding with treats, praise, and play
- Never used the recall cue for anything negative (like ending fun)
Result: Within three weeks, Bailey was responding reliably to his recall cue even with distractions. His owner reported, "The difference is incredible. He now comes running with his tail wagging, excited to see what reward he'll get."
Luna's Leash Reactivity Solution
Challenge: Luna, a 5-month-old Shepherd mix, would bark and lunge at other dogs during walks.
Positive Reinforcement Approach:
- Identified Luna's threshold distance where she noticed dogs but didn't react
- Used high-value treats to create positive associations with dogs at a distance
- Taught an incompatible behavior (looking at owner) when she saw dogs
- Gradually decreased the distance as Luna remained calm
- Managed walks to avoid overwhelming situations during training
Result: After two months of consistent training, Luna could walk past other dogs at a reasonable distance without reacting. Her owner shared, "Our walks are enjoyable now instead of stressful. Positive reinforcement gave us both confidence."
Max's Alone-Time Training
Challenge: Max, a 3-month-old terrier mix, would cry and bark when left alone, showing signs of separation anxiety.
Positive Reinforcement Approach:
- Created positive associations with alone time using special food-stuffed toys
- Practiced very short departures (seconds initially) and rewarded calm behavior
- Used a specific cue ("I'll be back") before leaving
- Ignored attention-seeking behaviors and rewarded calm, independent behavior
- Built duration gradually as Max succeeded
Result: Within six weeks, Max could comfortably stay alone for up to two hours. His owner reported, "The gradual approach made all the difference. He now settles with his toy when we leave instead of panicking."
Why These Approaches Worked
These success stories demonstrate key principles of positive reinforcement: building behaviors gradually, using high-value rewards for challenging tasks, teaching incompatible behaviors instead of just suppressing unwanted ones, and setting the dog up for success through management. In each case, the trainers focused on what they wanted the dog to do rather than punishing what they didn't want. This approach not only solved the behavior problems but strengthened the bond between dog and owner, creating lasting behavior change built on trust rather than fear.
Expert Tips for Faster Results
Professional dog trainers share their top tips for maximizing the effectiveness of positive reinforcement training.
Keep Sessions Short
Puppies have short attention spans. Limit training sessions to 1-5 minutes, several times daily. End while your puppy is still engaged and successful.
Set Up for Success
Manage the environment to prevent rehearsal of unwanted behaviors. Use baby gates, crates, and tethers to limit your puppy's options to only good choices.
Vary Your Rewards
Keep your puppy guessing by varying rewards - sometimes treats, sometimes play, sometimes praise. This maintains engagement and prevents satiation.
Make It Fun
Training should feel like a game for your puppy. Use happy voices, incorporate play, and keep the energy positive. If you're not having fun, your puppy isn't either.
Advanced Training Strategies
- Use the Premack Principle: Reward less desirable behaviors with opportunities to do more desirable ones (e.g., sit before throwing the ball)
- Incorporate life rewards: Use real-life privileges like going outside, getting attention, or sniffing as reinforcement
- Train during "real life": Incorporate training into daily activities rather than only during formal sessions
- Work at your puppy's level: Adjust your criteria based on your puppy's age, breed, temperament, and current ability
- End on a success: Always finish training sessions with a behavior your puppy can do easily and reward generously
The Most Important Tip: Patience
Perhaps the most crucial expert tip is to be patient. Puppies learn at different rates, have good days and bad days, and go through developmental stages that affect their training. What your puppy knows today, they may seemingly "forget" tomorrow during adolescence. Progress isn't always linear. Celebrate small victories and understand that building reliable behaviors takes time, consistency, and repetition. The time you invest in positive reinforcement training during puppyhood will pay dividends for years to come in the form of a well-behaved adult dog and a strong bond built on mutual trust and respect.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Training sessions should be very short, especially for young puppies. For puppies 8-16 weeks old, aim for 1-3 minute sessions, 3-5 times daily. Older puppies can handle slightly longer sessions of 3-5 minutes. The key is to end each session while your puppy is still engaged and successful, not when they're bored or frustrated. Multiple short sessions are far more effective than one long session. You can also incorporate training into daily activities by asking for behaviors before meals, during play, and on walks. Remember that puppies have short attention spans, and forcing them to train when they've lost focus can create negative associations with training.
If your puppy isn't food-motivated, try these strategies: 1) Use higher-value treats like real meat, cheese, or fish; 2) Train before meals when your puppy is hungrier; 3) Incorporate play rewards like tug or fetch for puppies who are play-driven; 4) Use life rewards like opportunities to go outside, sniff interesting smells, or greet people; 5) Make sure you're not overfeeding - puppies who always have food available may be less motivated by treats. Some puppies simply prefer other types of reinforcement. The key is discovering what truly motivates your individual puppy. Every dog has something they value - your job is to find it and use it in training.
Phasing out treats should be a gradual process: 1) First, switch from continuous reinforcement (treating every time) to variable reinforcement (treating unpredictably); 2) Replace some treats with other rewards like praise, petting, or play; 3) Use "life rewards" - opportunities to do things your puppy enjoys as rewards for good behavior; 4) Randomly surprise your puppy with treats for especially good responses, even for known behaviors. Completely eliminating treats isn't necessary or advisable - even well-trained dogs perform better when occasionally rewarded. The goal isn't to stop using treats entirely but to incorporate them into a broader reinforcement system that includes various types of rewards.
Positive reinforcement is most effective when used exclusively. Adding punishment can: 1) Undermine trust and damage your relationship; 2) Create fear and anxiety that interferes with learning; 3) Suppress behaviors without teaching what to do instead; 4) Lead to unintended side effects like aggression or avoidance. Instead of punishment, focus on: 1) Managing the environment to prevent unwanted behaviors; 2) Reinforcing incompatible behaviors (behaviors that can't happen at the same time as the problem behavior); 3) Using negative punishment (removing something desirable) like briefly withdrawing attention for jumping. The most effective approach is to consistently reinforce what you want while preventing or redirecting what you don't want.
If your puppy becomes overexcited during training: 1) Immediately stop the session and wait for calmness; 2) Use lower-value rewards to reduce arousal; 3) Incorporate calming exercises like "settle" on a mat; 4) Make training sessions shorter; 5) Practice in less stimulating environments; 6) Reward calm behavior whenever you see it. Some puppies become overaroused by high-value treats or exciting games. If this happens, switch to less exciting rewards and focus on teaching impulse control through exercises like "wait" for food, "leave it" with toys, and duration stays. Teaching your puppy to maintain self-control during exciting situations is an important part of training.
Yes, positive reinforcement is effective for all breeds and temperaments when implemented appropriately. However, the specific techniques and rewards may need adjustment based on individual characteristics. High-energy breeds may respond better to active training with movement and play rewards. Sensitive breeds may need quieter approaches with gentle reinforcement. Independent breeds may require higher-value rewards and more creative training approaches. The principles of positive reinforcement remain the same, but smart trainers adapt their methods to suit the individual puppy. The key is discovering what motivates your specific puppy and using that to build desired behaviors. All dogs, regardless of breed or temperament, respond to positive reinforcement when it's properly applied.
For unwanted behaviors like biting or jumping: 1) Teach and reward an incompatible behavior (like "sit" for jumping or "take it" with a toy for biting); 2) Manage the environment to prevent rehearsal of the behavior (use baby gates, leashes indoors); 3) Withdraw attention for behaviors like jumping - turn away completely until all four feet are on the floor, then reward; 4) For biting, redirect to appropriate chew toys and reward chewing on those; 5) Ensure your puppy is getting adequate physical and mental exercise. Avoid physical corrections or punishment, which can worsen these behaviors or damage your relationship. Instead, focus on teaching what you want your puppy to do instead and rewarding those behaviors generously.
Final Thoughts
Positive reinforcement training is more than just a method for teaching obedienceāit's a philosophy for building a relationship based on trust, mutual respect, and clear communication. When you focus on rewarding what you like rather than punishing what you don't, you create a puppy who's eager to learn and excited to work with you. The techniques outlined in this guide provide a foundation for effective, humane training that respects your puppy's emotional well-being while achieving remarkable results.
Remember that every puppy is an individual with unique motivations and learning styles. Be patient, stay consistent, and celebrate small victories along the way. The time and effort you invest in positive reinforcement training during puppyhood will pay dividends for years to come, resulting in a well-behaved adult dog and a bond that will last a lifetime.
As you embark on your training journey, keep in mind that the goal isn't perfection but progress. There will be challenges and setbacks, but with consistency, patience, and plenty of positive reinforcement, you and your puppy can achieve wonderful things together. The relationship you're building through positive training will create a partnership based on trust and mutual understanding that will enrich both your lives for years to come.
References and Further Readings
1- Positive Reinforcement: The Best Dog Training Method Science Says | The Yin Yang Dog
2- Positive Reinforcement: Training Your Dog With Treats and Praise | American Kennel Club
3- How to Train Your Dog with Positive Reinforcement | VCA Animal Hospitals
5- Does training method matter? Evidence for the negative impact of aversive-based methods | PLOS ONE
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